Dianic Practices and the Scottish Witch Trials: An Analysis of the All Souls Trilogy

In the All Souls series by Deborah Harkness, she captivates readers by building upon historical depictions of witches and creating a modern and intriguing story about ancient practices that have been integrated into a more modern setting. Though her story is a work of fiction, Harkness calls on many historically accurate references to piece the narrative together and tell a story rich in witchcraft practices, historical events, and characters that represent many aspects of the traditional witch. The story takes the reader through events that have been significant for how witches have been depicted over time. It also relies on the role of the Goddess Diana and how she has been an integral figure in many witchcraft rituals. The representations of the Goddess Diana and the Scottish witch trials in the All Souls book series by Deborah Harkness have been greatly and accurately informed by historical reference.

Harkness’ series is comprised of three novels: A Discovery of Witches, Shadow of Night, and The Book of Life. It follows the story of a young woman named Diana Bishop: a witch who has denied her magical nature and finds a career as a professor of the history of science and alchemy. Diana comes from a family of witches but has spent most of her life refusing to practice magic due to the tragic death of her parents. In the first novel, her work takes her to Oxford and the Bodleian Library where she comes across a magical alchemical manuscript.[1] In the library, Diana crosses paths with an ancient vampire named Matthew Clairmont – a professor of biology and genetics who is secretly studying the origins of vampires, witches, and daemons – the three creature species within this series. Diana and Matthew become romantically involved as they seek the secrets of the book Diana discovered. The book is believed to be the witches original grimoire as well as the container of the history of the origins of the species and the possibility of their shared ancestors.[2]

As the story progresses in the second book, the main characters flee from their enemies and seek refuge while Diana learns to control her magical powers. To do this, Diana and Matthew travel back in time to 1590 in western Europe where Matthew dives into his old life as a spy for the Queen of England and Diana relies on her knowledge of history to survive in a time where practicing witchcraft was considered a death sentence.[3] Throughout this novel Diana and Matthew have to navigate the persecution of witches occurring in Scotland and the witch-hunting mania that is spreading throughout Europe. They must also traverse a time in which the roles of men and women were very different than what Diana is accustomed to in the modern day – this struggle for her to find her authority and power is deeply linked with her magical abilities as she discovers more about who she is and what she is destined to be.[4]

The third book brings the story to a close with Diana and Matthew returning to the modern day with all that they have learned and experienced in the past. They work to evade their enemies, find the mysterious Book of Life, and bring together the three kinds of creatures (witches, vampires, and daemons) into a united community that will work together for their mutual benefit and survival. This part of the story is reliant on Diana’s relationship with the Goddess Diana and the price that she paid to save Matthew in the first book – her own life.[5] This story comes to an end with Diana completing what the Goddess has asked of her and fulfilling her duty. Throughout all three novels, Harkness uses historical references and depictions of witches’ beliefs and practices to shape both her characters and the journeys that they go on.

Diana Bishop is a seemingly average scholastic professor at the onset of the series. While her witch-ness is mentioned quickly, it is soon evident that it is not something that she believes to be an important part of her identity.[6] She places her identity mostly in her work as a professor and researcher of the history of science and alchemy. She was a very successful student and has claimed a good reputation for herself and the work that she has accomplished throughout her career. Physically, Diana has a medium athletic build with long blonde hair that she usually keeps pulled back. She enjoys physical activity and is a runner and a rower – these forms of exercise help her to cope with an excess of adrenaline that makes her prone to panic attacks.[7] Throughout the story, Diana becomes increasingly in touch with her magical nature and begins to learn how to use her powers. As she discovers her witch identity, her physical appearance begins to change as well. After both of her travels through time, Diana’s hair changes: first becoming strawberry-blonde and curly and then becoming red and straight with her return to the modern day – this superficial change echoes her journey of finding her identity as a witch.[8] These physical changes in Diana represent her connection to witchcraft and the experiences that she goes through as she delves deeper into her relationship with the Goddess and the history that has shaped witchcraft.

The Goddess Diana plays a central role throughout the All Souls series and her relationship to the main character is one of complexity and intimacy. Obviously, the main character is named after the Goddess as she was born on her feast day.[9] Throughout the story, Diana is connected back to the Goddess, especially in her triune state of Maiden, Mother, and Crone. In the first book of the series, Matthew’s life is at risk and Diana makes a deal with the Goddess to save his life – in the moment the Goddess appears as a young Maiden and an old Crone and Diana becomes the third aspect: the protective Mother. [10] This depiction of the threefold Goddess is a traditional one that has commonly been central to witchcraft practices.

The Canon Episcopi makes a connection between witches and Diana and tells of how women would ride out at night with the goddess. [11] This was likely in reference to previously established beliefs about the Wild Hunt and its connection to the witches’ sabbath. [12] Diana has been associated with the Wild Hunt, and therefore the witches’ sabbath, since ancient times as the Maiden hunter and Mother of fertility. [13] This relationship between Diana and witches has always existed, but was greatly enhanced by early modern European ideology about gender roles and the stereotyping of women as witches – ideas about the Wild Hunt provided an easy link with witchcraft, Diana, and death, which transformed further into a female connection with the Devil. [14] The powers that witches were believed to have and their association with Diana was thought to be evidence of a pact made with the Devil. [15] In her book, “The World of All Souls,” Harkness elaborates on the role that the Goddess plays in the practice of witchcraft, with a special focus on Wicca and Dianic Wicca.

In the practice of witchcraft, there are typically three versions of the Goddess and she is not always referred to as Diana. There are also Greek variations of goddesses that portray the triune state of the Goddess: Artemis as the Maiden and Hunter, Selene as the Mother and fertility goddess, and Hecate as the Crone and harbinger of death or the end. [16] This is accurately portrayed in the story by Harkness as Diana has always had multiple, even contradictory, aspects that compose her. Though typically portrayed as the “chaste goddess of the hunt” throughout history, Diana is also the mother of maidens. Though youthful and maternal, she is also fierce and protective and deals harshly with those who oppose her. [17]

In the All Souls series, the Goddess, though protective of Diana is also demanding of her. She guides Diana throughout her life and drives her towards her fate, but she also demands obedience and fealty from her.[18] There is a sense of provision and care that accompanies the Goddess Diana but also a feeling of fear and respect. Throughout history she has often been referred to as the mother of witches and maidens and is associated with both virginity and fertility – important facets of the practices of witchcraft in its many forms. [19]

The Goddess Diana has a particularly important role in one specific practice of witchcraft which Diana’s family practices: Dianic Wicca. [20] With its roots in neo-pagan practices, there really is no specific outline for the practice of Dianic Wicca aside from a few key components: goddess worship, elemental magic, and the cycles of nature.[21] Throughout the All Souls series, Diana and her aunts invoke the name of the Goddess and also pray to her and ask for her help. Diana herself offers the Goddess her own life in exchange for her favour in healing Matthew. [22] Just before her wedding with Matthew, Diana is taken to a temple of Diana to make an offering and to ask for her blessing upon her marriage and family. [23] Here Diana sees all the sacrifices and offerings that have been made by women to the Goddess as they sought her blessings and gave her honour. These practices are central to neo-pagan practices of goddess worship.

There are strong themes of nature and the Earth’s elements within Dianic Wicca and that is also an important part of the witchcraft practices in the All Souls series.[24] Most of the witches in the All Souls series celebrate various natural cycles of the Earth such as solstices, equinoxes, growth seasons, and times of harvest. [25] In the first novel, the witches in Oxford celebrate Mabon on the autumn equinox.[26] Diana and Matthew travel back in time on Halloween, a day that is also significant in Wicca and is believed to have special power.[27] These various festivals and celebrations are highly significant in Wicca and are well depicted throughout the series by Harkness.

Another major aspect of Dianic Wicca that is present throughout the entire series is the feminist ideology that is so closely associated with the practices of goddess worship and Diana. In the 1970s, the feminist movement reawakened some practices of goddess worship and ideas about the divine femininity and the abolishing of patriarchal systems.[28] These themes are very present in the second book of series when Matthew and Diana travel back in time to the 1590s and Diana experiences rather intense culture shock with some of the models of family and marriage that she is expected to adhere to.[29] Diana is accustomed to life as an independent scholarly woman in the twenty-first century, but upon her arrival in the sixteenth century, she realizes that she is expected to unquestioningly obey her husband and to always be accompanied or chaperoned even for menial tasks. She struggles with this system that reduces her to the property of someone else while she is in the midst of establishing her own identity and seeking out the help of other witches. This concept of patriarchal oppression, especially of marginalized women, accentuates the struggles faced by women in the 1590s during some of the peak years of witch-hunting in early modern Europe.[30]

In a time where women were frequently marginalized and dominated by men, the world that Diana and Matthew arrived in was primed and ready for what would be some of the most noted witch-hunts to take place in history. The Scottish witch trials have become a significant part of history for witches and witchcraft and were highly influenced by the attitudes and expectations that society held at the time. While Matthew had previously experienced the witch-hunts in Scotland, he now has a different attitude towards the witch community upon his return to the past. He has a stronger desire to be involved with and to prevent the horrific trials and hunts that will take place throughout Scotland and eventually spread to England and further throughout Europe.[31] However, despite what happens in the 1590s, there are attitudes, beliefs, and actions that set the stage for the witch-trials to begin. Documents such as the Canon Episcopi and the Scottish Witchcraft Act created an atmosphere of fear and condemnation for those accused of practicing witchcraft.

Though the Canon Episcopi likely originated in the ninth century, it was popularized in the fifteenth century with the beginning of the early modern European witch-hunts.[32] While the document initially refers to both men and women, the tone quickly changes to single out women as the typical practitioners of witchcraft and claims that women have been seduced by the Devil.[33] This text refers to the Goddess Diana as the “goddess of pagans,” a title that strips away her significance as a symbol of power, fertility, and youth for women and turns her into a demonic threat to society. The Canon also refers to men and women in very different manners; the women accused of witchcraft are “wicked,” but the men that are accused have been “held captive,”[34] This slight difference in language between genders creates a greater emphasis on women’s inherent sinfulness and creates a patriarchal attitude that would lay the foundation for the coming witch trials in Europe.

Another important document in the lead up to the witch-hunting in Scotland was the Scottish Witchcraft Act of 1563. This document laid out some of the practices that were punishable what said punishment may be.[35] Scotland at the time was a newly Protestant nation whose government was attempting to root out any residual Catholic ideologies and practices of its population.[36] It is rather evident that the document was created by a member of the church and not a man of the law as there are minor errors in it with reference to courts that didn’t actually exists in Scottish law: a mistake that someone well-versed in Scottish law would not likely make.[37] The birth of this document out of the Protestant church was probably meant to target Catholic rituals which were deemed “superstitioun” and possibly magical by Protestant authorities; however, there is no firm evidence that such accusations were the intentions of the act.[38] Despite the uncertainty of the intended targets, this act resulted in up to two thousand executions of accused witches in Scotland in the years to come.[39] These types of documents were vague in their definitions of witchcraft which allowed varying interpretations of the law and this, in turn, meant that accusations could run wild in areas where there were not agreed upon understandings of witches and their practices. However, it is likely that many of the victims of this act were “charmers” within communities: the people who were consulted for medical services, blessings, and other miscellaneous services that drew away from the Church.[40] Many of such charmers were midwives whose actions and words could be twisted to fit into a case against her in a trial for witchcraft. One such midwife in Scotland was Agnes Sampson.

Throughout the second book in Harkness’ series, the trial of Agnes Sampson unfurls in Scotland while Matthew and Diana are living in London. They hear about the goings on of the witch-hunts and trials taking place and worry over how it may affect Diana.[41] Despite the fiction of the narrative, Agnes Sampson was a real woman in Scotland who was accused, tried, and executed for practicing witchcraft. Agnes Sampson was accused by another woman named Geilles Duncan in her own trial for witchcraft.[42] In her own community, Sampson was known as a healer and a midwife but was accused of many different acts of witchcraft including throwing cats into the sea to prevent the potential queen from coming to Scotland.[43] Though she was likely seen as a beneficent member of her community by many, this case exemplifies how someone’s actions and words could be twisted into evidence of maleficia. Sampson was accused of many things including using witchcraft to heal a crippled man (though he remained crippled), saying that a man would recover from an illness (which he did), using “prayers and devilish charms” to heal a woman, and having a mark on her leg from the Devil (which was actually from on of her children.[44] It seems obvious now that her actions were the results of her experience as a healer, but at the time it was cause for execution, no matter how helpful and beneficent her actions truly were.

In the All Souls series, Harkness does not go into detail about the trial of Agnes Sampson but references several aspects of it. She mentions that Agnes confessed to fifty-three different acts of witchcraft.[45] One of the accusations she confessed to was attending a meeting at North Berwick, the place where one of the most notorious witch-hunts in Scotland took place.[46] In the book, Shadow of Night, the gathering of the witches at North Berwick is where it is foretold that a powerful witch would come and that that witch would be Diana.[47] The trial of Agnes Sampson in the fiction series plays a role of building tension for the persecution of the witches that will continue to take place for the years to come. Matthew previously was not affected by the execution of Sampson, but now that he is married to a witch, it frustrates him to be unable to intervene as history unfolds once again. Harkness does a fantastic job of giving a glimpse into the brutal treatment that the witches experienced through their trials and how it affected the population.

The All Souls trilogy by Harkness covers many more themes about witchcraft and history and it’s easy to get lost in the perfect details and incredible storytelling of the novels. The story doesn’t adhere to stereotypes too closely, but actively resists several of them. Diana Bishop is not a traditional or stereotypical witch with a crooked nose and malicious intentions; she is an educated, athletic, independent, and kind-hearted woman – everything that witch-hunters in the 1590s believed witches were not. And though Diana is disconnected from magic and witchcraft at the onset of the story, she grows and develops into a powerful witch with a deep connection to the Goddess, her community, and the Earth. Not only does she change inwardly, but her appearance reflects this growth outwardly and showcases her acceptance of the world that she is a part of. Harkness uses many historically authentic references throughout the series as she pulls the characters into the past and has them live through a time of great persecution for those accused of witchcraft.

This accuracy and authenticity of the narrative is due to Harkness’ career as a historian and professor of history at the University of Southern California. She has studied all over the USA and at Oxford (specifically in the Bodleian Library) which explains the initial location for her series. She is currently a professor of European history and is doing ongoing research about science, alchemy, and medicine during the Renaissance period. Harkness’ knowledge of the history of science and alchemy is also evident throughout the book as Diana studies the same field and gets to experience an alchemical laboratory setting in 1590s London in the second book of the All Souls series. The author seems to have written herself into Diana, as she echoes many of Harkness’ characteristics as a scholar, teacher, and historian.

Harkness began writing these books in 2008 and published the first novel in 2011. These years coincide with the height of a fascination with supernatural fiction and the never-ending obsession with historical drama. Around the world people were excited to read about vampires, werewolves, and witches and books in this genre were constantly being released to appeal to all age groups. This type of fantasy is both a product of its time and of the author’s passion for the Renaissance period and the world of witchcraft.

This series is a work of fiction, but it certainly does justice to the intricacy of the history of witchcraft and its interpretation to modern-day Wiccan practices. Harkness pulls on both the past and present to create an intriguing story that draws all kinds of audiences in. She is greatly informed by her historical research and brings in important details throughout her series that accurately depict practices of witchcraft, the role of the Goddess Diana in both the past and the present, as well as the witch-trials that dominated the countries of Scotland and England in the past. Not only is her fiction interesting and exciting, but her portrayal of both witches and history are done with understanding, authenticity, and respect for people’s beliefs and practices and the event of the past.

[1] Deborah Harkness, A Discovery of Witches (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), Kindle edition, chap. 1.

[2] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 1.

[3] Deborah Harkness, Shadow of Night (New York: Penguin Books, 2012), Kindle edition, chap. 1.

[4] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 1.

[5] Deborah Harkness, Book of Life, (New York: Penguin Books, 2014), Kindle edition, chap. 39.

[6] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 1.

[7] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 4.

[8] Harkness, Book of Life, chap. 41.

[9] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 34.

[10] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 37.

[11] Brian Levack, “Canon Law and Witchcraft,” in The Witchcraft Sourcebook, ed. Brian Levack (New York: Routledge, 2015), 61.

[12] Ronald Hutton, “The Wild Hunt and the Witches’ Sabbath,” Folklore 125, no. 2 (2014): 175.

[13] Hutton, “Wild Hunt,” 161.

[14] Hutton, “Wild Hunt,” 161.

[15] Julian Goodare, The European Witch-Hunt (New York: Routledge, 2016), 71.

[16] Harkness, The World of All Souls (New York: Penguin Books, 2018), Kindle edition, 246.

[17] Rebecca Zorach, “Despoiled at the Source,” Art History 22, no. 2 (1999): 249.

[18] Harkness, Book of Life, chap. 28.

[19] Zorach, “Despoiled,” 258.

[20] Harkness, All Souls, 246.

[21] “Neo-Paganism.” In Almanac, edited by Julie L. Carnagie et al., World Religions Reference Library 2 (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 373.

[22] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 37.

[23] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 12.

[24] “Neo-Paganism,” 374.

[25] “Neo-Paganims,” 374.

[26] Harkness, Discovery, chap. 2.

[27] “Neo-Paganism,” 340.

[28] “Neo-Paganism,” 383.

[29] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 4.

[30] Julian Goodare, The European Witch-Hunt (New York: Routledge, 2016), 270.

[31] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 13.

[32] Levack, “Canon Law,” 61.

[33] Levack, “Canon Law,” 62.

[34] Levack “Canon Law,” 62.

[35] Julian Goodare, “The Scottish Witchcraft Act,” Church History 74, no. 1 (2005): 40.

[36] Goodare, “Witchcraft Act,” 64.

[37] Goodare, “Witchcraft Act,” 42.

[38] Goodare, “Witchcraft Act,” 47.

[39] Goodare, “Witchcraft Act,” 40.

[40] Goodare, “Witchcraft Act,” 55.

[41] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 15.

[42] Brian Levack, “The Trial of Agnes Sampson,” in The Witchcraft Sourcebook, ed. Brian Levack (New York: Routledge, 2015), 314.

[43] Levack, “Agnes Sampson,” 314

[44] Levack, “Agnes Sampson,” 315-318.

[45] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 13.

[46] Levack, “Agnes Sampson,” 314.

[47] Harkness, Shadow, chap. 6.h

Bibliography Brochard, Thomas. “Scottish Witchcraft in a Regional and Northern European Context.” Magic, Ritual & Witchcraft 10, no. 1 (2015): 41-74. Goodare, Julian. "The Scottish witchcraft act." Church History 74, no. 1 (2005): 39-67. Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. NewYork: Routledge, 2016. Harkness, Deborah. A Discovery of Witches. New York: Penguin Books, 2011. Kindle. Harkness, Deborah. The Book of Life. New York, Penguin Books, 2014. Kindle. Harkness, Deborah. Shadow of Night. New York: Penguin Books, 2012. Kindle. Harkness, Deborah. The World of All Souls. New York: Penguin Books, 2018. Kindle. Hutton, Ronald. "The Wild Hunt and the Witches' Sabbath." Folklore 125, no. 2 (2014): 161-78. Levack, Brian. “Canon Law and Witchcraft.” In The Witchcraft Sourcebook, edited by Brian Levack, 61-62. New York: Routledge, 2015. Levack, Brian. “The Trial of Agnes Sampson.” In The Witchcraft Sourcebook, edited by Brian Levack, 314-317. New York: Routledge, 2015. "Neo-Paganism." In Almanac, edited by Julie L. Carnagie, Michael J. O'Neal, J. Sydney Jones, Marcia Merryman Means, Neil Schlager, and Jayne Weisblatt, 371-391. World Religions Reference Library 2. Detroit: UXL, 2007. Zorach, Rebecca. “Despoiled at the Source.” Art History 22, no. 2 (1999): 244. doi:10.1111/1467-8365.00151.

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